1. Astronomy
According to the Qur’an, God says “And it is he who that created the night and the day and the sun and the moon; all (heavenly bodies) in an orbit are swimming” Q.21:33.These references and the injunctions to learn inspired the early Muslim scholars to study the heavens. The most precise calendar superior to the Julian, is the Jilali, devised under the supervision of Umar Khayayam. It is argued that Muslim astronomers were the first to establish observatories like the one built at Mugharah by Hulagu, the son of Genghis Khan in Persia, and they invented instruments such as the quadrant and astrolabes, which led to advances not only in astronomy but also in oceanic navigation contributing to European age of exploration.
The Qur’an strongly urges mankind to study and explore the universe. “We (Allah) will show you (Mankind) our signs/patterns in the horizons/universe and in yourselves until you are convinced that the revelation is the truth” (Q.41:53).Thus invitation to explore and such made Muslims interested in astronomy.
2. Medicine
Probably the best introduction to the history of medicine in the Arab world is Islamic culture and the medical arts; In Islam, the human body is a source of appreciation as is created by almighty Allah (God). How it functions, how to keep it clean and safe, how to prevent diseases from attacking it or cure those diseases, have been important issues for Muslims. Ibn Sina (d.1037) better known to the west as Avicenna, was perhaps the greatest physician until the modern era and his work is still studied and built upon in the East. Every major Islamic city had excellent hospitals and many others were specialized for particular diseases including mental and emotional.
Prophet Muhammad (P.B.U.H) himself urged people to take medicines as cure for their diseases in a health, he said, “God created no illness, except that he has established for it a cure, except for old age. When antidote is applied, the patient will recover with the permission of God”. Since Islam did not forbid medicine, Muslim scholars used human cadavers to study anatomy and physiology and to help their students understand how the body functions and this empirical study enabled surgery to develop very quickly.
Another Islamic scholar who contributed to science is Ibn Nafis. He was a prominent physician of the 13th century hence discovered the pulmonary circulation. Al Razi (865-925) known in the west as Rhazes, was a famous physician and scientist. He stressed on empirical observation and clinical medicine. It is argued that he is the first scholar to discover small pox in Egypt in 1122 BC that was considered one of the most dangerous diseases in the world at that time.
3. Mathematics
Islamic contributions to science are note worthy. In arithmetic, the style of writing digits from right to left is an evidence of its Islamic origin. For instance, the numerical for five hundred in English should be written as 005, not as 500 according to English left reading style. Another invention that revolutionized mathematics was the introduction of the number zero by Muhammad Ibn Ahmad in 967 AD which was later introduced in the west by the beginning of 13th century, though modern society takes the invention for granted, it is a non trivial concept, that allowed major mathematical breakthroughs.
Fractions and principle of errors that is employed to solve algebraic problems mathematically is another Islamic contribution. Al-Khawarzmi (the first Muslim mathematician) is credited with the first thesis. He solved algebra equations of the first and second degree (known as quadratic equations and are prevalent in science and engineering) and introduced the geometrical method of solving these equations.
Another Islamic mathematician is Abul Wafa who successfully created and developed a branch of geometry, which consisted of problems leading to equations in algebra of a high degree than the second. Al-Karaki of the 11th century developed an approximate method of finding square roots, a theory of indices and intermediate quadratic equations.
4. Botany
Abdullah Ibn Baytar (d.1248) was the best-known botanist and pharmacist in the Muslim world. He made a collection of simple remedies from animals, vegetables and minerals. He is known for his two celebrated works, Al-Mughni fi al Aswiyah al-Mufradah, on materia medica and Al-Jami`fi al-Adwiya al-Mufradah, which is a collection of simple remedies from the animal, vegetable and mineral worlds embodying Greek and Arabic data supplemented by the author's own experiments and researches.
5. Objective Experiment
After materia medica, astronomy and mathematics, the Arabs made their greatest scientific contribution in chemistry. This brought chemistry out of the sphere of alchemy and gave it the status of a regular science based on observation. In the study of chemistry and other physical sciences, the Arabs introduced the objective experiment, a decided improvement over the hazy speculations of the Greeks. It was through them that the world was first introduced to the scientific method.
5. Chemistry
Jabir Ibn Hayyan (721-815) is the greatest in the field of medieval science. He recognized and stated the importance of experimentation than any other early al chemistry and made noteworthy and advancement in both theory and practice of chemistry. Jabir's books were held as the final authority on chemistry in Europe until the fifteenth century. Jabir produced the initial ladder to the modern western chemistry of the eighteenth century. It is believed that Jabir wrote two thousand books on different sciences.
6. Telescope
It is generally considered that Galileo (d.1442) is the inventor of the telescope but the truth is that long before his time, Abu Ishaq Ibn Jundels (d.767) had already made observations of the heavens. It’s argued that he had devised certain rules for observing distant objects and in accordance with those rules; he had invented a telescopic instrument. It is this initial telescope which was developed by Galileo and which was actual forerunner of the now highly perfected telescope of modern time.
7. Histography
History should not focus solely on royal actions and prerogatives through ages but should be a study of the sum of all the activities of all groups of human beings, whatever the framework, political or civilization within which they interact. Ancient history amounted to a belittling of humanity in general. In known history, Ibn Khaldun (1331-1406) is the only historian to have changed the historiography pattern. He raised history from a mere king-story to the level of genuine man-history. Khaldun changed Kingology to sinology and there after gave the science to Europe. Historians have generally acknowledged that the science of history remained undeveloped before the emergence of Ibn Khaldun and that he was the first person to develop a philosophy of history. The encyclopedia Britannica goes to say that Ibn Khaldun developed one of the world’s most significant philosophies of history.
8. Geography
Muslim scholars paid great attention to geography. In fact, Muslim’s great concern for geography originated with their religion. Islam requires each Muslim to have at least enough knowledge of geography to know the direction of the Qiblah (The position of the Ka’abal in Makkah) in order to pray five times a day. As Muslims took long journeys to conduct trade as well as make Hajj and spread Islam, they compiled amounts of geographical and climatic information from the Atlantic to pacific oceans
Ibn Khaldun and Ibn Batuta are among the most famous and renowned Muslim explorers in the field of geography. In 1166, Al-Idrisi, (A well known Muslim scholar who served the Sicilian court) produced the very accurate maps including a world map with all the continents and their mountains, rivers and famous cities. Al-Muqdishi was the first geographer to produce accurate maps in colour. In July 1492, Muslims were instrumental in helping Christopher Columbus to navigate to the Caribbean south of Florida.
9. Histography
History should not focus solely on royal actions and prerogatives through ages but should be a study of the sum of all the activities of all groups of human beings, whatever the framework, political or civilization within which they interact. Ancient history amounted to a belittling of humanity in general. In known history, Ibn Khaldun (1331-1406) is the only historian to have changed the historiography pattern. He raised history from a mere king-story to the level of genuine man-history. Khaldun changed Kingology to sinology and there after gave the science to Europe. Historians have generally acknowledged that the science of history remained undeveloped before the emergence of Ibn Khaldun and that he was the first person to develop a philosophy of history. The encyclopedia Britannica goes to say that Ibn Khaldun developed one of the world’s most significant philosophies of history.
10. Humanity
Seeking knowledge is obligatory in Islam for every Muslim, man and woman. The main source of Islam, the Quran and Sunnah (prophet Muhammad’s traditions) encourages Muslims to seek knowledge and be scholars. Since this is the best way for people to know Allah (God); to appreciate His wondrous creations and be thankful for them. Muslims have always been eager to seek knowledge, both religious and secular and that’s how Islam spread and flourished. The outcome is shown in the spread of Islamic universities like Al-zaytunah in Tunis and Al azhar in Cairo which date back to more than 1000 years and are the oldest existing universities in the world. Even the familiar academic cap and gown originated at Al Azhar University.
Precisely, Islam made a great contribution towards science in different fields such as geography, physics, chemistry, mathematics, medicine, history, and astronomy through Muslim pioneers. The following are a summary of the Islamic pioneers in the development of science.
Wilfykil answered the question on March 2, 2019 at 06:42