1. The Evolutionary model
This model tended to dominate sociology during the 19th century. The evolutionary model in sociology sprang from an analogy in the field of biology. Biologists traced stages in thee development of organisms.
Sociologists saw society as proceeding inevitably through such fixed stages. Furthermore, the idea of evolution was linked with the idea of progress, each stage representing a higher stage than the previous one. August Comte talked of three stages, namely, those of conquest, defense and industry.
Karl Marx used this to explain his views about the historical development of society. Societies moved through different stages of civilization: for instance, feudalism during which landowning classes held domination area over servants to capitalism. Furthermore each stage of civilization prepared the ground for the next stage, because each stage contained in itself what he termed as “the seeds of its own destruction” and would inevitably be succeeded by the stage next or higher on the scale of evolution.
The stage of capitalism would inevitably be replaced by socialism and eventually be communism
Many politicians of the time used this model to oppose any ideas of guided social change. However, by 20th century, so much information had been obtained about societies all over the world that it was not considered necessarily true that all societies went through fixed stages of development. The idea that all societies pass through a fixed set of stages has now been definitely discarded.
2. Consensus model
This model seeks to account for order in society. It seeks to explain how social structure and organizations are integrated and maintained. Listed below are some of the major issues raised by the theories using the consensus model.
i) Most members of society share the same values and norms. Societies are stable because of this factor. It should be noted that norms refer to standards that govern behavior. They are societal expectations of what is accepted as normal. Sometimes norms are formalized as law but in most cases they are informal. Furthermore values are inferred from observed behavior. For example if one associate with certain people then we can assume that he values their friendship. In this case it is stated clearly that society sees cooperation as vital and rewarding. The consensus theorists point out that violence and conflict may appear from time to time but they are contained and overcome. They are seen as mere strains in the system. Society the returns to a state of equilibrium because the goals of the society can be reached more efficiently through other relationships such as trust, and cooperation, which persist such even in the time of conflict. The social system therefore tends to persist because the members accept its norms and values.
ii) Social life involves commitments, it is pointed out that cooperation is a phenomenon that accounts for social stability.
iii) Societies are of necessity, cohesive.
iv) social life depends on solidarity
v) Social life is based on reciprocity and cooperation.
vi) Social systems rest on consensus. Emphasis is on the mutual interference of parts of society.
vii) Society recognizes legitimate authority. The term authority is used to refer to the probability that a specific command will be obeyed. In this case the essence of authority is voluntary obedient because one believes that the source of the command is legitimate. In this connection consensus theorists argue that so long as the leaders and the led share the same values, there should be little political conflict since there is agreement on the goal of society. Government is based o the consent of the governed, and therefore people have power over that government and vie versa.
viii) social system are integrated i.e. the society through its members and constituent organizations adapts itself to the environment, attains its goals, integrates new members into the functioning whole, and manages tensions as they arise social systems to persist.
Thus the consensus theorists attribute to social systems the characteristics of commitment, cohesion, solidarity, consensus, reciprocity, cooperation integration, stability and persistence. The model lays emphasis on the significance of norms and accepted values.
3. The conflict model
This is another model that seeks to account for order in society. This theory has its origin in Marxist thinking. According to Marx, society is to be seen in terms of conflicting relationships. For instance, the capitalists (who own the means of production) are seen to be in conflict with the workers (who provide the labor)
We shall look at some of the key issues that are raised by this model. They basically negate some of the positions taken by consensus theorists
i. Values and norms are not the same for all members of the society but vary according to ones position and self interest. Interest is never identical for all groups and the division of society into different classes with different access to a variety of interest. There is consensus only among those who share the same privileges.
ii. Social life involves inducement and coercion. Marxists contend out that society but vary according to one’s position and self interest. Interests are never identical for all groups and the division of society into different classes with different access to a variety of interest. There is consensus only among those who share the same privileges.
iii. Social life is necessary divisive. This is primarily because organizational set-ups encourage inequalities. This is a phenomenon that brings about conflicts. For example in our society, such divisions as those between reach and poor schools, rural versus urban schools generate conflicts. The rich schools have more facilities, a factor that puts them in an advantageous position and allows them to perform better in examinations. Such kind of inequalities will obviously generate conflict rather than consensus.
iv. social life generates opposition , exclusion and hostility
v. Social life generates structured conflict. For example if the government decides to provide free education to all students may get a better education than others. Consensus theories may explain this by saying that some students are more hard working than others- whereas the conflict theorists will talk of looking at the structure of the society in terms of who gets a better education. The conflict theorists will point to the ruling class as having the economic and political upper hand.
vi. Social life generates sectional interests.
vii. Social differentiation involves power. Here the Marxists affirm that political leadership is maintained through power. In a way, power is the ability to affect one’s own will against resistance from other. Power is often exercised by the use of force. This does not happen only in schools – where conditions are manipulated in such a way that students are forced to obey rules. There is also the idea that people themselves have no real power. Even in a democracy, there is no such thing as freedom of the press because the “powerful elite” control the press. Radical leaders who are popular are co-opted or eliminated by rulers so that they don’t create trouble for the leadership.
viii. Social system are integrated and beset by “contradictions” i.e. there as a lot of disagreement in social systems.
ix. Social systems are constantly changing.
Thus conflicts theorists attribute the characteristics of coercion, division, hospitality, conflict and change to society itself. There is a marked emphasis on the significance of interests and power.
However, it should be noted that be on the consensus and the conflict models although different in terms of the nature of society, emphasis characteristics that can be found in any given society.
Wilfykil answered the question on March 2, 2019 at 08:28