a) DEAL AND KENNEDY MODEL
Deal and Kennedy created four types of cultures:
i) Work-hard, play-hard culture---This has rapid feedback/reward and low risk resulting in Stress coming from quantity of work rather than uncertainty. High-speed action leading to high-speed recreation. Examples: Restaurants, software companies.
ii) Tough-guy macho culture---This has rapid feedback/reward and high risk, resulting in the following: Stress coming from high risk and potential loss/gain of reward. Focus on the present rather than the longer-term future. Examples: police, surgeons, sports.
iii) Process culture--- This has slow feedback/reward and low risk, resulting in the following: Low stress, plodding work, comfort, and security. Stress comes from internal politics and the stupidity of the system. Development of bureaucracies and other ways of maintaining the status quo. Focus on the security of the past and of the future. Examples: banks, insurance companies.
iv) Bet-the-company culture ---This has slow feedback/reward and high risk, resulting in the following: Stress coming from high risk and delay before knowing if actions have paid off. The long view is taken, but then much work is put into making sure things happen as planned. Examples: aircraft manufacturers, oil companies.
b) CHARLES HANDY
Charles Handy (1985) describes six types of cultures:
i) Power Culture… which concentrates power among a few. Control radiates from the center like a web. Power and influence spread out from a central figure or group. Power desires from the top person and personal relationships with that individual matters more than any formal title of the position. Power Cultures have few rules and little bureaucracy; swift decisions can ensue.
ii) Role Culture….. people have clearly delegated authorities within a highly defined structure. Typically, these organizations form hierarchical bureaucracies. Power derives from a person's position and little scope exists for expert power. Controlled by procedures, role descriptions, and authority definitions. Predictable and consistent systems and procedures are highly valued.
iii) Task Culture…. teams are formed to solve particular problems. Power derives from expertise as long as a team requires expertise. These cultures often feature the multiple reporting lines of a matrix structure. It is all a small team approach, who are highly skilled and specialized in their own markets of experience.
iv) Person Culture… exists where all individuals believe themselves superior to the organization. Survival can become difficult for such organizations since the concept of an organization suggests that a group of like-minded individuals pursue the organizational goals. Some professional partnerships can operate as personal cultures because each partner brings particular expertise and clientele to the firm.
v) Backward-looking culture…. does not embrace change and is led by systems and procedures. They do not take risks and because of it are usually left with a business not doing so well.
vi) Forward-looking culture……Organisations that have an entrepreneurial spirit, always embrace change, and listen to staff and customers are said to be forward-looking. Forward-looking organizations are risk-takers and do well because of it
c) ROBERT A. COOKE
Robert A. Cooke describes two types of cultures: CONSTRUCTIVE & AGGRESSIVE
i. CONSTRUCTIVE CULTURES
Constructive cultures are:
? Achievement-oriented
? Self-actualizing
? Humanistic-encouraging
? Affiliative
• Achievement-oriented: Completing a task successfully, typically by effort, courage, or skill (pursue a standard of excellence) (explore alternatives before acting) -Based on the need to attain high-quality results on challenging projects, the belief that outcomes are linked to one's effort rather than chance and the tendency to personally set challenging yet realistic goals. People high in this style think ahead and plan, explore alternatives before acting and learn from their mistakes.
• Self-Actualizing: Realization or fulfillment of one's talents and potentialities - considered as a drive or need present in everyone (think in unique and independent ways) (do even simple tasks well) -Based on needs for personal growth, self-fulfillment, and the realization of one's potential. People with this style demonstrate a strong desire to learn and experience things, creative yet realistic thinking, and a balanced concern for people and tasks.
• Humanistic-Encouraging: Help others to grow and develop (resolve conflicts constructively) -Reflects an interest in the growth and development of people, high positive regard for them, and sensitivity to their needs. People high in this style devote energy to coaching and counseling others, are thoughtful and considerate, and provide people with support and encouragement.
• Affiliative: Treat people as more valuable than things (cooperate with others) -Reflects an interest in developing and sustaining pleasant relationships. People high in this style share their thoughts and feelings, are friendly and cooperative, and make others feel a part of things.
ii. AGGRESSIVE/DEFENSIVE CULTURES
Aggressive defensive cultures are:
? Oppositional
? Power oriented
? Competitive
? Perfectionistic
? Oppositional- This cultural norm is based on a need for security that takes the form of being very critical and cynical at times. People who use this style are more likely to question others. This may have the advantage of improving the product. However, those who use this style tend to be over-critical and use others' small flaws to put them down and this may adversely affect interpersonal relationships.
? Power- This cultural norm is based on the idea that there is a need for prestige and influence. Those who use this style often equate their own self-worth with controlling others. Those who use this style have a tendency to dictate others.
? Competitive- This cultural norm is based on the idea of a need to protect one's status. Those who use this style protect their own status by comparing themselves to other individuals and outperforming them. Users of this style are seekers of appraisal and recognition from others.
? Perfectionistic- This cultural norm is based on the need to attain flawless results. Those who often use this style equate their self-worth with the attainment of extremely high standards. They are always focused on details and place excessive demands on themselves and others.
d) CAMERON & QUINN
Cameron & Quinn identify four types of culture:
i. Clan Culture……Internal focus and flexibility - A friendly workplace where leaders act like father figures.
i. Adhocracy Culture…..External focus and flexibility - A dynamic workplace with leaders that stimulate innovation.
i. Market Culture…..External focus and control - A competitive workplace with leaders like hard drivers.
i. Hierarchy Culture…….Internal focus and control - A structured and formalized workplace where leaders act like coordinators.
Chatelaine answered the question on June 16, 2021 at 06:49