1.Problem Statement
At the root of all research, there is a problem. A researcher identifies a research problem through various ways like;
Reading research reports on various fields
-Personal experience
-Discussion
-Observation
-Listening
Characteristics of a research problem
-It is clear and easily captures the reader’s interest
-It must be researchable
-It indicates the scope of the research
-It indicates the importance of the study in adding new knowledge. The researcher should describe the factors that make the stated problem a critical issue to warrant the study. For example, if the problem is high dropout rate among female pupils in primary schools, the researcher could elaborate on the consequences of the girls dropping out of school; for example - marginalization in the formal sector, a high fertility rate, child labor, poor family nutritional status.
2.Defining objectives and Research Questions
Objectives are what a researcher aims at achieving through the proposed research. Objectives determine the data collection and analysis procedures to be used. It is therefore important for the objectives to be clear, unambiguous and brief.
Characteristics of a good Objective (SMART)
i. Specific: The objective identifies specific variables and activity
ii. Measurable: It must be possible to determine if the objective has been met by using relevant indicators.
iii. Achievable: Is it feasible or viable in relation to researches, activities and time available.
iv. Reliable: So that once accomplished, the results will have solved the problem it was intended to
v. Time bound: One should be able to schedule a specific time period to accomplish the activity.
Research questions are questions which a researcher would like answered by undertaking the study. The difference between research questions and objectives is that a research question is stated in a question form while an objective is a statement.
3.Formulating Hypothesis
A hypothesis, very simply speaking is an educated guess. It is a declarative statement, which could be both in a positive form as well as in a negative form. A hypothesis in a negative form is known as a null hypothesis. A hypothesis should indicate a relationship between two or more variables.
Characteristics of a good hypothesis.
-It should be clear and precise.
-It should be related to purpose of study.
-Should show relationship between variables
-It should be consistent with a substantial body of established facts.
-It should be empirically testable hence avoid moral judgments which cannot be verified.
4.Literature Review
This involves a systematic identification, location and analysis of documents containing information related to the research problem being investigated.
Purposes of Literature Review
-To determine what has been done in the area being studied
--Avoid unnecessary and unintentional duplication of work
Form framework from which research findings are interpreted
-Demonstrate writer’s familiarity with existing body of knowledge
-Reveal strategies, procedures and instruments that have been found useful in investigating the problem -in question, hence avoiding mistakes from previous researches.
Steps in carrying out Literature Review
-Make a list of key phrases to guide your literature research
-With these phrases, go to the library and find out sources of such information
-Summarize the references.
-Using headings and subheadings, organize and report the literature in an orderly manner
5. Research Methodology:
In this section, the study describes the procedures that have been followed in conducting the study.
-Research Design: You should specify the type of research design to be used. For example, experimental, case study, survey, etc. it is also important to point out why the chosen design is appropriate for the proposed study.
-Population and sample: Describe the population from which the sample will be drawn. Population is defined as a complete set of individual cases of objects with the same common observable characteristics. A subset of a particular population is called a sample. For example
one may want to study lecturers in public universities. A sample of two hundred lecturers drawn from all the public universities constitutes the sample
-Sampling Procedures: To select a representative sample, a researcher must first have a sampling frame. A sampling frame is a list of cases from which a sample can be selected. Examples of sampling frames include: a national census list, lists of a professionals in a particular field, students’ registers etc. in some cases, one may not have a sampling frame.
6.Sampling Methods:
i. Probability Sampling. It is used on samples from a specified population . Probability sampling includes:
ii. Simple random sampling
iii. Systematic random sampling
iv. Stratified random sampling and
v. Cluster sampling
Non-probability sampling is used when a researcher is dealing with unspecified (non- listed) accessible populations, it includes:
i. Purposive sampling
ii. Quota sampling
iii. Voluntary sampling
iv. Convenient sampling
7.Data collection
After obtaining the necessary approvals, permissions and documents, the researcher must embark on collection of primary data from the field using the appropriate techniques. Make adequate arrangements for the co-ordinating of research assistants (where applicable), checking all your data and storing the data.
Data collection tools/Research Instruments: A researcher needs to develop instruments with which to collect the necessary data. In social science research, the most commonly used instruments are: questionnaires, interview schedules, observational forms and standardized tests.
Questionnaires:
There are two broad categories of questions that are used in questionnaires:
-Structured or closed-ended
-Unstructured or open-ended.
-Structured or closed-ended questions are accompanied by a list of all possible alternative from which respondents select the answer that best describes their situation. In many cases the category ‘other’ is included to take care of responses, which may not fit in the given categories.
g: what is your level of education?
(a) Primary (b) Secondary (c) Degree (d) Others
Advantages:
-They are easier to analyze since they are in immediate usable form;
- They are easier to administer because each item is followed by alternative answers.
-They are economical to use in terms of time and money. Disadvantages
-They are difficult to construct because categories must be well thought out
-Responses are limited and the respondent is compelled to answer questions according to the researcher’s choices.
-Unstructured or open-ended questions give the respondent complete freedom of responses.
E.g How do you keep record of your monthly expenditure in your household?
Advantages;
-They permit a greater depth of response
-They are simpler to formulate- no need for response categories,
-The responses may give an insight into the background, motivation, feelings and interests,
-They can stimulate a person to express what he considers most important. Disadvantages
-There’s a tendency to give irrelevant answers
-The responses are difficult to analyze quantitatively.
-It is time consuming for the respondents and this may put off some of them. (ii) Interviews
-Interviews are face to face encounter with respondents.
-The interviewer normally uses an interview schedule- a set of questions to be asked. An interview schedule can be structured, semi-structured or unstructured. Structured questions usually have categories with responses and answers. Unstructured interviews (sometimes called guides) have a general plan that the interviewer follows. The interviewer asks questions intended to meet the study objectives-probing is commonly used. Semi-structured interviews have some questions with categories and some open-ended ones.
Some interview schedules are semi-structured. An interviewer may take notes or use tape/video recording (each of these has advantages and disadvantages) telephone interviews also be used when appropriate.
Advantages
-They provide in-depth data which is not possible to get for a questionnaire
-Interviews guard against confusing the questions
-They are more flexible than questionnaires
-They may elicit very sensitive and personal information
-The interviewer can clarify the purpose of research and get more information by probing. Disadvantages
They can introduce bias and subjectivity into the study
-Interviews are more suitable for smaller samples
Responses may be influenced by the respondent’s reaction to the interviewer.
(iii) Observation
During data collection, the researcher checks off behavior as it occurs. Behavior should be described in sufficient detail.
Advantages
Observation gives more accurate information
Can be used alongside other instruments
Observation can be done repeatedly to verify information.
Disadvantages
-Time consuming
-Only a few cases can be observed in detail
-It may require further training of observers (in-case of more than one).
Sometimes it is biased because people may choose to pay undue attention on some aspects and ignore others.
8. Data Analysis, Interpretation and Presentation
After you have collected all your primary data from the field. You need to present it logically and interpret it accurately. First, you will present data in the aggregate with the help of suitable statistical devices (charts, graphs, tables, diagrams, histograms etc), this will help your readers to discern the emergent patterns in your data (e.g. greater and lesser frequencies). Then you will interpret these patterns in order to test your hypothesis and solve your research problem.
9.Discussion of findings, Conclusions and Recommendations:
This is the final, and perhaps the most important step of your research work. Summarize your findings in such a way that a reader may understand what you really found out Write
the summary logically, addressing your questions, objectives and hypothesis as applicable. Link these to your theoretical framework and literature review. In writing your conclusions, it is important to discuss the practical application and implications of your findings in the real world. Your conclusions pull all the strands together in a broader perspective and indicate possible action, where appropriate. Your summary' and conclusions should lead logically to recommendations. These must be consistent with the objectives of the study, the data presented and interpretation given. Recommendations should be practical and achievable.
Titany answered the question on August 13, 2021 at 10:13