1. Biological determinants such as hunger, appetite, and taste
-Hunger and satiety
Humans need energy and nutrients in order to survive (see ‘Principles of nutrition’) and will
respond to feelings of hunger and satiety. Different macronutrients have different effects on
satiety. For example, fat is the least satiating, followed by carbohydrates then protein. In
addition, low energy density diets have greater satiety than high energy density (e.g. high fat
and/or high sugar) diets.
-Taste/Palatability
Palatability increases as the pleasure an individual experiences from eating a food increases.
The taste, smell, texture and appearance of a food all impact on the palatability of a food. For example, sweet foods have a high sensory appeal and have higher palatability meaning that
the food may be consumed for pleasure rather than as a source of energy and nutrients. It is
reported that the higher the palatability of a food, the higher the consumption.
There is some evidence so show that preferences for flavours can be acquired through breast
milk as flavours from maternal diets pass into breast milk.
2. Economic determinants such as cost and income
-Cost and income
The cost of food and the ability of an individual to afford specific foods (related to income)
are primary determinants of food choice. Low-income groups are reported to consume
unbalanced diets and low intakes of fruit and vegetables. Increasing the amount of available income for food choices, however, does not necessarily mean that individuals will consume a more balanced and healthy diet. In addition, individuals may resist buying new foods for fear that the food made be wasted as the family may reject the food.
3. Physical determinants such as access, education, skills and time
-Accessibility and availability
Accessibility to shops and the availability of foods within shops influence food choice. This
is associated with transport links and geographical locations. For example, ‘food deserts’ are
areas of resistance with few or no shopping facilities. Improving access does not necessarily
mean that individuals will change their food choice.
-Education and knowledge, and skills
Individuals that are educated and knowledgeable about ‘healthy eating’ are more likely to opt
for healthy dietary choices. This, however, depends on whether the individual is able to apply
their knowledge. Educating the population requires accurate and consistent messages.
Education on how to increase fruit and vegetable consumption in an affordable way such that
no further expense, in money or effort, is incurred may be beneficial for influencing food
choices. In addition, a lack of knowledge and the loss of cooking skills can also inhibit buying and preparing meals from basic ingredients.
-Time constraints
Time constraints will prevent individuals from adopting healthy choices especially the young
and those that live alone who choose convenience foods. The demand has been met with the
introduction of more ready-to-cook meals and pre-packed fruits and vegetables (instead of
loose). Although the convenience foods are more expensive, customers are willing to pay for
them.
4. Social determinants such as social class, culture, and social context
-Social class/socioeconomic
There are differences in food choices in different social classes which lead to both under- and
over-nutrition. For example, people within the higher social class groups tend to have
healthier diets (e.g. higher intakes of fruit, lean meat, oily fish, wholemeal products, and raw vegetables) compared with manual workers. It is thought that higher socioeconomic groups
have healthier diets because they may have higher educational levels and may be more health
conscious and have healthier lifestyles. Social class differences in diet are of particular
concern with respect to health inequalities.
-Cultural influences
Cultural influences impact on diet choices and food preparation – evidence has shown that
traditions, beliefs and values are among the main factors influencing preference, mode of
food preparation, and nutritional status. Cultural habits, however, have been shown to
change, for example, when individuals move to a new country and adopt the food habits of
the local culture. For example, South Asian females migrating to Scotland showed increased
fat intakes and this was associated with an increased body mass index, and incidence of heart
disease and type 2 diabetes.
-Social Context
Social context includes both the people who have an impact on an individual’s eating
behaviour and the setting in which an individual consumes their dietary choice. People
influence an individual’s food choices directly and indirectly: buying food on behalf of an
individual is a direct impact whilst learning from a peer’s behaviour (conscious or
subconscious) has an indirect impact. Social support (e.g. families) can have a beneficial
effect on individual’s food choice by encouraging
and supporting healthy eating practices. The setting for food consumption (e.g. home, school,
work, and restaurants) will affect food choice by the availability of food options.
5. Psychological determinants such as mood, stress and guilt
The evidence supporting psychological determinants and food choice is limited and proposed
mechanisms for the relationship are complex.
-Stress
Stress can trigger changes in human behaviours that affect health; the effect of stress on food
choice is complex and individualistic: some people consume more food and make unhealthy
food choices and others consume less food. It is believed that stress induced changes may be
due to changes in motivation (e.g. reduced concern for weight control), physiological
(reduced appetite), changes in eating opportunities, food availability and meal preparation.
-Mood
Food can change an individual’s temperament and mood and influences food choice.
Individuals report food cravings (especially among women during the premenstrual phase)
and the relationship with food for dieters mean that people may feel guilty
after indulging in food or attempting to restrict food and increasing the desire for the food.
6. Attitudes, beliefs and knowledge about food, and optimistic bias
-Attitudes and beliefs
Consumer attitudes and beliefs vary by individual, within groups of a population and across
countries. The Pan-European Survey of Consumer Attitudes to Food, Nutrition and Health
found that the top five influences on food choice were ‘quality/freshness’(74%), ‘price’
(43%), ‘taste’ (38%), ‘trying to eat healthy’ (32%) and ‘what my family wants to eat’ (29%).
These were average figures for 15 countries but results differed significantly between
countries. Females, older subjects, and more educated subjects considered ‘health aspects’
more important than other factors whilst males rated ‘taste’ and ‘habit’ as the main
determinants of food choice.
-Optimistic bias
There are a high percentage of individuals who perceive their diets to be healthy and do not
believe that they need to make dietary changes. People therefore believe that they are at less
risk from a hazard compared to others e.g. people overestimate their consumption of fruit and
vegetables. An individual who considers their diet to already be healthy is less likely to adopt additional healthy eating practices.
-Food taboos and cultural notion
Some people do not eat various specific foods and beverages in conformity with various
religious, cultural, legal or other societal prohibitions. Many of these prohibitions
constitute taboos.
Many food taboos and other prohibitions forbid the meat of a particular animal, including
mammals, rodents, reptiles, amphibians, fish, molluscs, crustaceans and insects, which may
relate to a disgust response being more often associated with meats than plant-based foods.
Some prohibitions are specific to a particular part or excretion of an animal, while others
forgo the consumption of plants or fungi.
Some food prohibitions can be defined as rules, codified by religion or otherwise, about
which foods, or combinations of foods, may not be eaten and how animals are to
be slaughtered or prepared. The origins of these prohibitions are varied. In some cases, they
are thought to be a result of health considerations or other practical reasons; in others, they
relate to human symbolic systems.
Some foods may be prohibited during certain religious periods (e.g., Lent), at certain stages
of life (e.g., pregnancy), or to certain classes of people (e.g., priests), even though the food is otherwise permitted. On a comparative basis, what may be declared unfit for one group may be perfectly acceptable to another within the same culture or across different cultures. Food taboos usually seem to be intended to protect the human individual from harm, spiritually or physically, but there are numerous other reasons given within cultures for their existence. An ecological or medical background is apparent in many, including some that are seen as
religious or spiritual in origin. Food taboos can help utilizing a resource more efficiently, but when applied to only a subsection of the community, a food taboo can also lead to the
monopolization of a food item by those exempted. A food taboo acknowledged by a
particular group or tribe as part of their ways, aids in the cohesion of the group, helps that
particular group to stand out and maintain its identity in the face of others and therefore
creates a feeling of "belonging"
Titany answered the question on November 8, 2021 at 09:17